Table 3 The results of the mixed-effects multilevel regression for life expectancy at birth

Fixed-effects parameters

 Intercept (β₀)

3.698

0.336

11.010

0.000*

 Slope (β₁)

5.59 × 10^–4

1.72 × 10^–4

3.24

0.001**

Level-1: Time (Year)

 Health expenditure per capita, PPP

8.52 × 10^–6

8.84 × 10^–7

9.64

0.000*

 Physicians

0.007

0.001

9.330

0.000*

 Nurses

0.001

0.000

5.220

0.000*

 Hospital beds

-0.004

0.001

-6.370

0.000*

Level-2: Country level (Country characteristics)

 Unemployment rate

2.50 × 10^–4

0.000

1.210

0.225

 Percentage of female population

-0.012

0.001

-11.160

0.000*

 Inflation rate

-0.002

3.67 × 10^–4

-5.060

0.000*

 In_GDP, PPP

0.004

0.001

5.950

0.000*

Level-3: Healthcare system (Beveridge or Bismarck models)

 Bismarck-type healthcare system (Dummy)

-0.002

0.002

-1.160

0.245

Random-effects parameters

Estimate

Standard Error

 Healthcare system (Random intercept, u_i)

4.85 × 10^–12

1.41 × 10^–9

 Country (Random intercept, u_oij)

1.26 × 10^–13

6.99 × 10^–11

 Country (Random slope, u_1ij)

1.59 × 10^–15

6.36 × 10^–15

 Error term (e_ijk)

2.48 × 10^–4

1.61 × 10^–5