Table 1 Principles of designing for resilient performance, adapted from [19]

There must be models of the system

There should be models (e.g., functional, process, virtual, and physical models) of how the system works under both normal and degraded conditions. There can be complementary models, each highlighting some aspects and concealing others. Models must include the main interactions with the external environment. These models should be available for those who play a role in the design team

Make variations in performance visible

In complex systems, variations in performance are inevitable. Gathering and sharing this information in real time is vital to understanding performance

Use the type of standardization that best fits the nature of the function/process

Standardization can range from strictly defined process steps to the definition of goals that leave completely open the means for their achievement. A variety of standards, in terms of their level of detail and action or decision-making specification, might co-exist for different processes in the same system

Design slack resources and strategies

Slack resources (e.g., equipment, time, money) slow down the propagation of variability and support adaptation. However, some types of slack resources add elements and interactions to the system, increasing complexity and posing their own threats. Slack resources are deployed through slack strategies (i.e., how to use the resource) such as redundancies and reciprocity – e.g., one unit helps another whose adaptive capacity is saturated

Design for acceptable performance even under degraded conditions

Design should support the maintenance of acceptable performance, which involves the preservation of higher order goals, even under degraded conditions. This principle can benefit from the slow (or graceful) system degradation, which allows time for action-taking

Design must involve leveraging diverse perspectives

This principle is applicable both to the design process (i.e., designers should account for diverse perspectives in their decision-making) and to the system resulting from design (i.e., the system should have mechanisms for giving a voice to people from different hierarchical ranks, suppliers, clients, etc.). There can be a tension between the number of perspectives to be considered and the coordination costs of accounting for them. Designers should have the ability, and be given the proper organizational support, to cope with this tension

Design to support continuous learning at the individual and organizational level

Complex systems offer learning opportunities ranging from everyday work to accidents. Learning in complex systems is harder because impactful events are unlikely to reoccur at the same way. Design can play a major role in supporting continuous individual and organizational learning (e.g., training programs, after-action reviews, incident investigations). Learning should occur from all operations rather than from a specific subset